Energy Probe

Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are known as carbon abatement.

a single exposure that results in biological harm or death; usually characterized by a brief exposure lasting no more than 7 days, as compared to longer, continuing exposure over a period of time

When funds are used to pay for technologies that reduce emissions, the resulting emission reductions are ‘additional’ only if the reductions would not have occurred in the absence of those funds.

A measure of the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere and the dispersion potential of an area to dilute those pollutants.

a silvery metal; it is a man-made element whose isotopes americium-237 through -246 are all radioactive. Americium-241 is formed spontaneously by the beta decay of plutonium-241. Trace quantities of americium are widely used in smoke detectors, and as neutron sources in neutron moisture gauges.

American Petroleum Institute

A body of rock that is sufficiently permeable to conduct groundwater and to yield economically significant quantities of water to wells and springs.

The smallest part of an element, comprising a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons orbiting the nucleus.

the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of a nuclide. (The atomic mass number is not the same as the chemical atomic weight, which is the average of all the naturally occurring isotopes of an element weighted according to their relative abundances.)

AMU is equal to the mass of one-twelfth of a carbon-12 atom.

The natural radiation that is always present in the environment. It includes cosmic radiation which comes from the sun and stars, terrestrial radiation which comes from the Earth, and internal radiation which exists in all living things.

Backscatter is the portion of the outgoing radar signal that the target redirects directly back towards the radar antenna.

A closed geologic structure in which the beds dip toward a central location; the youngest rocks are at the center of a basin and are partly or completely ringed by progressively older rocks.

barrels, petroleum (42 gallons)

billion cubic feet

The Système Internationale unit used to measure the radioactivity of a radioactive source. 1 Bq = 1 nuclear disintegration per second. The unit is named after the French physicist A-H. Becquerel.

A charged particle consisting of a positive or negative electron, emitted by a radioactive element. Beta particles can travel farther than alpha particles, and can penetrate about 2 cm. into human skin. Shielding from beta particles requires material of the thickness and density of a piece of plywood.

the amount of energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent parts, or conversely, the energy released upon formation of the nucleus

Natural gas produced by living organisms or biological processes.

Bureau of Land Management

Best Management Practices

An approach to address competitiveness issues through either: 1) requiring imported goods to pay for their un-priced emissions costs; and/or 2) relieving exports of their expected emissions costs. The goal of these approaches is to “level the playing field” for Canadian firms in either the domestic or international market so as to not place Canadian firms at a competitiveness disadvantage.

British thermal units

radioactive materials left over from the production or use of special nuclear material

Clean Air Act

CAIDI is the average forced sustained interruption duration experienced by interrupted customers per year (measured in hours).
Calculation is SAIDI divided by SAIFI.

Also known as a “tradable permit system,” a cap-and-trade policy involves setting the annual level of emissions by issuing emission permits (permits). If individual emitters produce more emissions than they have permits, they can purchase additional permits. Governments can fix the level of emissions (providing quantity certainty) by choosing the number of permits to issue, but the price of permits will be set by the market, and is thus uncertain.

A carbon tax is a policy instrument that sets a per-unit charge on emissions. Typically the system involves a tax on fuels that emit carbon dioxide when burned and on other greenhouse gas emission. A schedule for future tax rates would be established, sending a long range price signal to the economy. The tax thus provides price certainty but leaves the annual level of emissions reductions uncertain.

a cancer-causing substance

Steel piping positioned in a wellbore and cemented in place to prevent the soil or rock from caving in. It also serves to isolate fluids, such as water, gas, and oil, from the surrounding geologic formations.

Coal Bed Natural Gas

Council on Environmental Quality

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

an iron-gray, lustrous metal. It is malleable, and oxidizes very readily at room temperature, especially in moist air. The pure metal may ignite when scratched with a knife. Cerium-141, -143, and -144 are radioisotopes of cerium. They emit beta particles during radioactive decay.

an iron-gray, lustrous metal. It is malleable, and oxidizes very readily at room temperature, especially in moist air. The pure metal may ignite when scratched with a knife. Cerium-141, -143, and -144 are radioisotopes of cerium. They emit beta particles during radioactive decay.

a metal that may be stable (non radioactive) or unstable (radioactive). The most common radioactive form of cesium is cesium-137. Another fairly common radioisotope is cesium-134. Cesium-137 is much more significant as an environmental contaminant than cesium-134. It is also very useful in industry for its strong radioactivity.

a metal that may be stable (non radioactive) or unstable (radioactive). The most common radioactive form of cesium is cesium-137. Another fairly common radioisotope is cesium-134. Cesium-137 is much more significant as an environmental contaminant than cesium-134. It is also very useful in industry for its strong radioactivity.

Code of Federal Regulations

Methane

a reaction that initiates its own repetition. In a fission chain reaction, a fissionable nucleus absorbs a neutron and fissions (splits) spontaneously, releasing additional neutrons. These, in turn, can be absorbed by other fissionable nuclei, releasing still more neutrons. A fission chain reaction is self-sustaining when the number of neutrons released in a given time equals or exceeds the number of neutrons lost by absorption in non-fissionable material or by escape from the system.

a reaction that initiates its own repetition. In a fission chain reaction, a fissionable nucleus absorbs a neutron and fissions (splits) spontaneously, releasing additional neutrons. These, in turn, can be absorbed by other fissionable nuclei, releasing still more neutrons. A fission chain reaction is self-sustaining when the number of neutrons released in a given time equals or exceeds the number of neutrons lost by absorption in non-fissionable material or by escape from the system.

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon dioxide, a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, until recently considered benign or beneficial. Of late, some scientists have attributed to it a large role in global warming.

A clean-burning natural gas found deep inside and around coal seams. The gas has an affinity to coal and is held in place by pressure from groundwater. CBNG is produced by drilling a wellbore into the coal seam(s).

a gray, hard, magnetic, ductile, and somewhat malleable metal, cobalt is relatively rare and generally obtained as a byproduct of other metals, such as copper. Its most common radioactive isotope is cobalt-60, which emits beta particles during radioactive decay.

A strip of land through which one or more existing or potential utilities may be colocated.

a term used to describe the state of a fission reaction when the number of neutrons released by fission is exactly balanced by the neutrons being absorbed and escaping. For example, reactor is said to be "critical" when it achieves a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, as it does when the reactor is operating.

The unit formerly used to measure radioactivity, replaced in much of the world by the becquerel. However, the curie is still used in the United States.

Clean Water Act

Darlington Nuclear Generating Station, located on the north shore of Lake Ontario in Clarington, Ontario, near Toronto, is comprised of four reactors. Planned in the early 1970s and constructed between 1981 and 1993, its cost overruns led to the effective bankruptcy and dismantling of Ontario Hydro, a provincial crown corporation.
The Darlington reactors have a total output of 3512 MW (capacity net) and 3740 MW (gross net).

the series of decays that certain radioisotopes go through before reaching a stable form. For example, the decay chain that begins with Uranium-238 culminates in Lead-206, after forming intermediates such as Uranium-234, Thorium-230, Radium-226, and Radon-222. Also called the "decay series."

the isotopes or elements that form and the particles and high-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted by the nuclei of radionuclides during radioactive decay. Also known as "decay chain products," "daughter products," or "progeny" (the isotopes and elements).

the decrease in the amount of any radioactive isotope with the passage of time due to the spontaneous emission of radiation from the atomic nuclei (either alpha or beta particles, often accompanied by gamma radiation), and consequent transformation to a different chemical form.

the process of removing a nuclear facility from service by reducing residual radioactivity in buildings or at the site to a level that permits the release of the property for unrestricted use or maintenance under protection for reasons of public health and safety. (see also, decontamination)

The technique of drilling at an angle from a surface location to reach a target formation not located directly underneath the well pad.

commonly refers to a device that spreads radioactive material by exploding a conventional (non-nuclear) explosive, such as dynamite. Because they do not involve the sophisticated technology required to create a nuclear explosion, dirty bombs are much simpler to make than a true nuclear bomb.

A well which injects produced water into an underground formation for disposal.

A criterion evaluating the extent to which a policy design will result in disproportionate impacts on different regions, sectors, or households; the criterion assesses issues of equity.

A general term used to refer to the effect on a material that is exposed to radiation. It is used to refer either to the amount of energy absorbed by a material exposed to radiation or to the potential biological effect in tissue exposed to radiation.

the radiation dose delivered per unit time

a small portable instrument (such as a film badge, thermoluminescent, or pocket dosimeter) for measuring and recording the total accumulated personal dose of ionizing radiation

Delaware River Basin Commission

The mast, draw works, and attendant surface equipment of a drilling or workover unit.

Energy Information Administration

The shift of the energy system toward an increased use of electricity-using technology instead of fossil-fuel combusting technology. This shift on the demand side is enabled by a growth in electricity generation on the supply side to provide the required electricity.

Energy stored in electromagnetic waves or radiation. Energy is released when the waves are absorbed by a surface. Any object with a temperature above absolute zero (-273° Celsius) emits this type of energy. The intensity of energy released is a function of the temperature of the radiating surface. The higher the temperature the greater the quantity of energy released.

Effluent Limitation Guidelines

Air pollution discharge into the atmosphere, usually specified by mass per unit time.

Those species of plants or animals classified (in the U.S.) by the Secretary of the Interior or the Secretary of Commerce as endangered pursuant to Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. See also Threatened.

uranium in which the proportion of the isotope uranium-235 has been increased

a method of decommissioning a nuclear facility in which radioactive contaminants are encased in long-lived material, such as concrete. The entombment structure is maintained and monitored until the radioactivity decays to a level allowing decommissioning and ultimately, safe unrestricted use of the property.

Environmental Protection Agency

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

The process of identifying a potential subsurface geologic target formation and the active drilling of a borehole designed to assess the natural gas or oil.

a term relating to the amount of ionizing radiation that strikes a living or inanimate material. (This is a general definition. In health physics, exposure is specifically defined as a measure of ionization in air caused by x-ray or gamma radiation only.)

Exposure, external: Irradiation from a nearby source of radiation. The radiation emitted by the source travels through the air and irradiates the person.

Exposure, internal: Irradiation from a radioactive substance inside the body. A radioactive substance may be inhaled, as a radioactive gas or particles suspended in air, or ingested in radioactive dust, or water contaminated with radioactive substances. It may also enter the body through a cut in the skin. Some of these substances will decay in a very short time, or the body may excrete them. Others may lodge in body tissue, where they will continue to emit radiation.

Routes by which radioactive material can reach and/or irradiate a person. Examples are an exposure from a radioactive plume, deposition on the soil, or ingestion of contaminated food and water.

Irradiation from a source of radiation on a person's skin. The radiation source is in tiny particles which expose the skin and the underlying tissue, until they are washed away.

the slow descent of minute particles of radioactive debris in the atmosphere following a nuclear explosion.

A small diameter pipeline that generally connects a well to the initial processing facility.

A rock body distinguishable from other rock bodies and useful for mapping or description. Formations may be combined into groups or subdivided into members.

Federal Register

A mixture of water and additives used to hydraulically induce cracks in the target formation.

Subsidies provide an incentive to change behaviour, or to invest in a new technology. Usually, some of those changing their behaviour would have done so even without the subsidy, but they still receive the money. Those who accept compensation for doing what they would anyway have done are free-riding on the subsidy.

foot/feet

One kind of action that could reduce emissions. For example, in response to a carbon pricing policy, a firm could shift from coal-burning technology to natural gas-burning or electrical technology.

a reaction in which at least one heavier, more stable nucleus is produced from two lighter, less stable nuclei. Reactions of this type are responsible for enormous release of energy, as in the energy of stars, for example.

Fish and Wildlife Service

gallon

High-energy electromagnetic radiation producing ionisation of exposed matter. Gamma rays are very penetrating: they can travel hundreds of metres in air and can pass through the human body. Shielding against gamma rays requires thick layers of dense materials, such as lead.

A radiation detection and measuring instrument. It consists of a gas-filled tube containing electrodes, between which there is an electrical voltage, but no current flowing. When ionizing radiation passes through the tube, a short, intense pulse of current passes from the negative electrode to the positive electrode and is measured or counted. The number of pulses per second measures the intensity of the radiation field. It is the most commonly used portable radiation detection instrument.

Greenhouse Gases

Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans in the-20th century, and its projected continuation.

a unit of measurement for absorbed dose. It relates to the amount of energy actually absorbed in a material, and is used for any type of radiation and any material. One gray is equal to one joule of energy deposited in one kg of a material. The unit gray can be used for any type of radiation, but it does not describe the biological effects of the different radiations. Absorbed dose is often expressed in terms of hundredths of a gray, or centi-grays. One gray is equivalent to 100 rads.

Subsurface water that is in the zone of saturation; source of water for wells, seepage, and springs. The top surface of the groundwater is the “water table.”

Ground Water Protection Council

Hydrogen Sulfide

The area in which a particular species lives. In wildlife management, the major elements of a habitat are considered to be food, water, cover, breeding space, and living space.

The time required for the disintegration of half the atoms of a radioactive substance, through radioactive decay.

Hazardous Air Pollutant

Hydrochloric acid

A drilling procedure in which the wellbore is drilled vertically to a kick-off depth above the target formation and then angled through a wide 90 degree arc such that the producing portion of the well extends horizontally through the target formation.

Injecting fracturing fluids into the target formation at a force exceeding the parting pressure of the rock thus inducing a network of fractures through which oil or natural gas can flow to the wellbore.

The pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to its inherent physical properties and the amount of pressure being exerted on it from outside forces.

A well used to inject fluids into an underground formation either for enhanced recovery or disposal.

a nonmetallic solid element. There are both radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes of iodine

Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission

an atom or molecule that has too many or too few electrons, causing it to have an electrical charge, and therefore, be chemically active (2) an electron that is not associated (in orbit) with a nucleus

Removal of an electron from a neutral atom or molecule, creating a positively charged ion. These atoms recombine very quickly and can cause biological effects in cells. One cause of ionisation is exposure to radioactive particles or rays.

the process of adding one or more electrons to, or removing one or more electrons from, atoms or molecules, thereby creating ions. High temperatures, electrical discharges, or nuclear radiation can cause ionization.

A form of radiation, which includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and x-rays, neutrons, high-speed electrons, and high-speed protons. Compared to non-ionizing radiation, such as found in ultraviolet light or microwaves, ionizing radiation is considerably more energetic. When ionizing radiation passes through material such as air, water, or living tissue, it deposits enough energy to break molecular bonds and displace (or remove) electrons. This electron displacement may lead to changes in living cells. Given this ability, ionizing radiation has a number of beneficial uses, including treating cancer or sterilizing medical equipment. However, ionizing radiation is potentially harmful if not used correctly, and high doses may result in severe skin or tissue damage.

infra-red

exposure to radiation

A nuclide having the same number of protons and neutrons but a different energy. One isomer is usually less stable and (relatively) quickly transitions to the more stable form, releasing some energy in the process.

A nuclide of an element having the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.

Forms of an element whose atoms have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. All the isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties, but their physical properties, such as atomic mass, vary.

An unstable form of lead in the uranium-238 decay chain, lead-210 is a significant source of beta radiation.

The relocation of greenhouse gas-emitting firms to other jurisdictions to avoid the costs of a carbon pricing policy. In this case, the policy has not reduced the total number of emissions, merely caused their point of origin to change. Since climate change is a global issue and the source of emissions does change their impact, leakage reduces the effectiveness of the policy.

A legal document that conveys to an operator the right to drill for oil and gas. Also, the tract of land, on which a lease has been obtained, where producing wells and production equipment are located.

Linkages between carbon pricing systems (usually cap-and-trade systems) are explicit recognition of emission reductions in one jurisdiction by another jurisdiction. For example, a linkage exists between systems A and B if firms in jurisdiction A can receive credit for emissions permits allocated in jurisdiction B. Linkages can be one or two-way depending on whether both jurisdictions accept the other’s credits as valid reductions.

waste containing very low concentrations of radioactive material

radioactively contaminated industrial or research waste such as paper, rags, plastic bags, water-treatment residues. It is waste that does not meet the criteria for any of three other categories of radioactive waste: spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste; transuranic radioactive waste; or uranium mill tailings. Its categorization does not depend the level of radioactivity it contains.

Emission reductions usually involve some cost, often the cost of investing in new technologies or processes. The cost of reducing emissions is known as the abatement cost. The marginal abatement cost is an economic concept, which refers to the cost of one extra unit of reductions (that is, the cost of a marginal increase in abatement).

thousand cubic feet

symbol: μ, one millionth of a unit. For example a microgram ( μg ) is one millionth of a gram.

one millionth of a meter

An electromagnetic wave having a wavelength from 1 mm to 0.1 mm (300 GHz to 3000 GHz). Millimeter waves exhibit many of the properties usually associated with waves in the optical regime, e.g., they are easily concentrated into a beam.

million cubic feet

The substance, often liquid, in the core of a nuclear reactor that slows neutrons to promote the fission chain reaction. In CANDU reactors, the moderator is heavy water, a form of water with an isotope of hydrogen that has two neutrons.Neutron: A subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom, without an electrical charge. Neutrons may be produced in nuclear fission reactors, or rarely, in spontaneous fission reactions in uranium.

a combination of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded. A molecule is the smallest unit of a compound that can exist by itself and retain all of its chemical properties.

millirem

millirem per year

Material Safety Data Sheets

Material containing no significant amounts of radionuclides other than naturally occurring radionuclides. The exact definition of ‘significant amounts’ would be a regulatory decision.

Radioactive materials that are found in nature. Until recently, technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) was referred to simply as NORM. The words "technologically enhanced" were added to distinguish clearly between radionuclides as they occur naturally and radionuclides that human activity has concentrated or exposed to the environment.

National Environmental Policy Act

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

National Energy Technology Laboratory

An unreactive particle that accompanies a beta particle. It has no charge and virtually no mass.

a small particle possessing no electrical charge typically found within an atom's nucleus. A neutron has about the same mass as a proton.

in reactor physics, a material other than fissionable material, in the vicinity of the reactor core that will absorb neutrons. The addition of poisons, such as control rods or boron, into the reactor is said to be an addition of negative reactivity.

Neutron radiation is energy released from an atom in the form of neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons are part of the basic building blocks of atoms. They have no charge and are about the same mass as a proton. Due to ion-producing collisions with matter and absorption/decay processes, neutrons are a type of ionizing radiation.

Radiation that has lower energy levels and longer wavelengths than ionizing radiation. It is not strong enough to affect the structure of atoms it contacts but is strong enough to heat tissue and can cause harmful biological effects. Examples include radio waves, microwaves, visible light, and infrared from a heat lamp.

Effects that can be related directly to the dose received. The effect is more severe with a higher does, i.e., the burn gets worse as dose increases. It typically has a threshold, below which the effect will not occur. A skin burn from radiation is a non-stochastic effect.

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material

Nitrogen Oxides

National Pollution Discharge Elimination System

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

Ozone

Offsets are emission reductions that are ‘created’ outside any regulated system, and sold to regulated emitters. Regulated emitters can use offsets, instead of permits, to comply with the carbon pricing policy. For example Company A wants to reduce its emission to 500 tonnes a year. It invests in energy efficiency technologies, and reduces its emissions to 600 tonnes a year, but finds that further reductions would be very expensive. Instead
of reducing another 100 tonnes itself, Company A pays for emission reductions in India, where there are more low-cost emission reductions opportunities.

Oil Pollution Act

The entire volume of gas contained in the reservoir, regardless of the ability to produce it.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

A small particle of solid or liquid matter (e.g., soot, dust, and mist).
PM10 refers to particulate matter having a size diameter of less than 10 millionths of a meter (micrometer) and PM2.5 being less than 2.5 micro-meters in diameter.

A rock’s capacity to transmit a fluid; dependent upon the size and shape of pores and interconnecting pore throats. A rock may have significant porosity (many microscopic pores) but have low permeability if the pores are not interconnected.

a substance that emits light when excited by radiation

A discrete "packet" of pure electromagnetic energy. Photons have no mass and travel at the speed of light. The term "photon" was developed to describe energy when it acts like a particle (causing interactions at the molecular or atomic level), rather than a wave. Gamma and X-rays are photons.

a discrete "packet" of pure electromagnetic energy. Photons have no mass and travel at the speed of light. The term "photon" was developed to describe energy when it acts like a particle (causing interactions at the molecular or atomic level), rather than a wave. Gamma and X-rays are photons.

one one-trillionth (1/1,000,000,000,000) of a curie.

A cloud of airborne radioactive material that is transported from a nuclear or radiological source in the direction of the prevailing wind.

A defined zone around a nuclear facility for which detailed planning and preparations are made in advance to ensure that appropriate measures against exposure to a radioactive plume (such as sheltering or evacuation) can be applied in a timely and accurate manner.

a heavy, man-made, radioactive metallic element. The most important isotope is Pu-239, which has a half-life of more than 20,000 years; it can be used in reactor fuel and is the primary isotope in weapons. One kilogram is equivalent to about 22 million kilowatt-hours of heat energy. The complete detonation of a kilogram of plutonium produces an explosion equal to about 20,000 tons of chemical explosive. Plutonium is a bone-seeking radiation hazard, and can be lethal depending on the dose and exposure time.

Particulate Matter

Carbon emissions arise predominantly from the burning of fossil fuels. Carbon-based fuels like oil pass from the oil well, to the refinery, to the distributor and finally to the consumer. Carbon pricing can be applied anywhere along this fuel chain, and the point at which it is applied is the point of regulation. The point of regulation is usually described as UPSTREAM or DOWNSTREAM.

a radioactive chemical element and a product of radium decay. Polonium is found in uranium ores.

A radiation monitor built like a door frame, inside which a person stands while the monitor scans for radioactive contamination of skin, hair, and clothing.

a particle equal in mass to the electron but having a positive electronic charge.

A compound prescribed in tablet form to limit the absorption by the human thyroid gland of radioactive iodine-131, which may be present in the atmosphere as a result of a radioactive release. Potassium iodide may be used by emergency workers and people living in the vicinity of the release. Potassium iodide is also called stable iodide, and the process of taking it to prevent absorption of radioactive iodine is termed "thyroid blocking".

parts per million

In a carbon trading system, the prices of emissions permits are determined by the market. If there are not enough permits, prices will rise, creating a strong incentive to invest in emission reductions. However, if prices rise too fast and too high, the system may produce unnecessary and damaging shocks to the economy. A price ceiling or SAFETY VALVE, sets a maximum possible price. When prices reach the price ceiling, the carbon trading system acts like a carbon tax.

A right that can be granted to state by the federal government that allows state agencies to implement programs with federal oversight. Usually, the states develop their own set of regulations.

Water produced from oil and gas wells.

Silica sand or other particles pumped into a formation during a hydraulic fracturing operation to keep fractures open and maintain permeability.

a small particle, typically found within an atom's nucleus, that possesses a positive electrical charge. The number of protons is unique for each chemical element.

That portion of recoverable resources that is demonstrated by actual production or conclusive formation tests to be technically, economically, and legally producible under existing economic and operating conditions.

Former unit of measurement of absorbed dose (q.v.), replaced by the gray (q.v.). The rad is still used in the United States. 1 rad = 0.01 gray.

energy given off as either particles or rays from the unstable nucleus of an atom

the set of symptoms that results when the whole body (or a large part of it) has received an exposure of greater than 50 rads of ionizing radiation. The earliest symptoms are nausea, fatigue, vomiting, and diarrhea. Hair loss, hemorrhaging, inflammation of the mouth and throat, and general loss of energy may follow. If the exposure has been approximately 1,000 rad or more, death may occur within two to four weeks.

A radioactive material or byproduct that is specifically manufactured or obtained for the purpose of using the emitted radiation. Such sources are commonly used in teletherapy or industrial radiography; in various types of industrial gauges, irradiators, and gamma knives; and as power sources for batteries (such as those used in spacecraft). These sources usually consist of a known quantity of radioactive material, which is encased in a manmade capsule, sealed between layers of nonradioactive material, or firmly bonded to a nonradioactive substrate to prevent radiation leakage. Other radiation sources include devices such as accelerators and x-ray generators.

an officially prescribed symbol (a magenta or black trefoil) on a yellow background. It must be displayed where certain quantities of radioactive materials are present or where certain doses of radiation could be received.

The radiation arising from natural radiation sources such as terrestrial radiation from radioactive substances in the soil, and cosmic radiation from space.

Radiation that causes ionisation of atoms by loss of electrons.

a deposit of radioactive material in any place where it may harm persons, equipment, or the environment.

The process in which an unstable (radioactive) nucleus emits radiation and changes to a more stable isotope or element. A number of different particles can be emitted by decay. The most typical are alpha or beta particles.

The breakdown of the atomic nucleus leading to the emission of particle radiation (alpha or beta), or electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays), or a combination of these. A decay process is characterised by a radioactive half-life (q.v.), which is distinctive for each radioisotope.

spontaneous transformation of the nucleus of an atom; this resulting in a new element, generally with the emission of alpha or beta particles often accompanied by gamma rays

a test to detect and determine the amount of radioactive materials present that emit ionizing radiation. It will detect transuranic nuclides, uranium, fission and activation products, naturally occurring radioactive material and medical isotopes.

caused by exposure to ionizing radiation

using radiation sources to "photograph" internal structures, such as turbine blades in jet engines. A sealed radiation source, usually iridium-192 or cobalt-60, beams gamma rays at the object to be checked. Gamma rays passing through flaws in the metal or incomplete welds strike special photographic film (radiographic film) on the opposite side. The process is very similar to taking an x-ray to check for broken bones.

isotopes of an element that have an unstable nucleus. Radioactive isotopes are commonly used in science, industry, and medicine. The nucleus eventually reaches a more stable number of protons and neutrons through one or more radioactive decays. Approximately 3,700 natural and artificial radioisotopes have been identified.

That branch of medicine dealing with the diagnostic and therapeutic applications of radiant energy, including x-rays and radioisotopes.

an unstable form of a nuclide

Radium is a naturally-occurring radioactive metal. Radium is a radionuclide formed by the decay of uranium and thorium in the environment. It occurs at low levels in virtually all rock, soil, water, plants, and animals. Radon is a decay product of radium.

Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in soils, rock, and water throughout the U.S. Radon causes lung cancer, and is a threat to health because it tends to collect in homes, sometimes to very high concentrations. As a result, radon is the largest source of exposure to naturally occurring radiation.

Reasonable and Prudent Practices for Stabilization

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Rehabilitation of a disturbed area to make it acceptable for designated uses. This normally involves regrading, replacement of topsoil, re-vegetation, and other work necessary to restore it.

The phase during which activities focus on restoration of quality of life, social systems, economies, community infrastructures, and the environment. This phase may last up to several years after the emergency.

The controlled or accidental discharge of radioactive substances into the atmosphere or water, which may occur during the operation of nuclear facilities. Also called emission.

a non-urgent removal or continued expulsion of people from contaminated areas to avoid chronic radiation exposure.

radioactivity in structures, materials, soils, groundwater, and other media at a site resulting from activities under the cognizant organization's control. This includes radioactivity from all sources used by the cognizant organization, but excludes background radioactivity as specified by the applicable regulation or standard. It also includes radioactive materials remaining at the site as a result of routine or accidental releases of radioactive material at the site and previous burials at the site, even if those burials were made in accordance with the provisions of 10 CFR Part 20.

An element of policy design determining how government revenue (accrued through either a carbon tax or the auctioning of permits in a cap-and-trade system) will be allocated. Possible approaches to revenue recycling include: reducing existing taxes, providing support for competitiveness issues, funding support for technological deployment and research and development, or addressing adverse distributional effects.

a unit of exposure to ionizing radiation. It is an indication of the strength of the ionizing radiation. One Roentgen is the amount of gamma or x-rays needed to produce ions carrying 1 electrostatic unit of electrical charge in 1 cubic centimeter of dry air under standard conditions.

A unit of exposure to ionizing radiation. It is the amount of gamma or x-rays required to produce ions resulting in a charge of 0.000258 coulombs/kilogram of air under standard conditions. Named after Wilhelm Roentgen, the German scientist who discovered x-rays in 1895.

a basic unit of absorbed radiation dose. It is being replaced by the 'gray,' which is equivalent to 100 rad. One rad equals the dose delivered to an object of 100 ergs of energy, per gram of material.

Recommended Practice

Reportable Quantity

In a carbon trading system, the prices of emissions permits are determined by the market. If there are not enough permits, prices will rise, creating a strong incentive to invest in emission reductions. However, if prices rise too fast and too high, the system may produce unnecessary and damaging shocks to the economy. A ‘safety valve’ or PRICE CEILING, sets a maximum possible price. When prices reach the safety valve, the carbon trading system acts like a carbon tax.

SAIDI is the average forced sustained interruption duration per customer served per year (measured in hours). Calculation is
“Total Customer Hours of Interruptions” divided by “Total Number of Customers”.

SAIFI is the average number of forced sustained interruptions experienced per customer served per year (measured in outages).
Calculation is the “Total Customer Interruptions” divided by “Total Number of Customers”.

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

Standard cubic feet

Safe Drinking Water Act

Radiation originating as the result of absorption of other radiation in matter. It may be either electromagnetic or particulate in nature.

The distance that must be maintained between a well or other specified equipment and any protected structure or feature.

Natural gas produced from low permeability shale formations.

Material placed between a radiation source and human beings, equipment or other objects in order to prevent or reduce ionizing radiation from reaching the person or object.

a unit used to derive a quantity called equivalent dose. This relates the absorbed dose in human tissue to the effective biological damage of the radiation. Not all radiation has the same biological effect, even for the same amount of absorbed dose. Equivalent dose is often expressed in terms of millionths of a Sievert, or micro-Sievert. One Sievert is equivalent to 100 rem.

A water based fluid mixed with friction reducing agents, commonly potassium chloride.

Sulfur Dioxide

Any solid, semi-solid, liquid, or contained gaseous material that is intended for disposal.

effects of radiation that are limited to the exposed individual, as distinguished from genetic effects, which may also affect subsequent generations.

Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures

Plutonium, uranium-233, or uranium enriched in the isotopes uranium-233 or uranium-235. For additional detail, see Special Nuclear Material.

A spillover is an indirect effect of spending or investment. Spillovers occur when the investor cannot exclude others from the benefits of the investment. For example, investment in research produces new knowledge that often cannot be completely controlled. As a result, the benefits of investment ‘spill over’ into the rest of the economy.

Condition that exists when the surface rights and mineral rights of a given area are owned by different persons or entities; also referred to as “severed estate”.

Susquehanna River Basin Commission

An isotope that does not undergo radioactive decay.

Any of several processes used to enhance near wellbore permeability and reservoir permeability.

A condition or requirement attached to a lease or contract, usually dealing with protection of the environment, or recovery of a mineral.

State Review of Oil and Natural Gas Environmental Regulation, Inc.

a silvery, soft metal, that rapidly turns yellow in air; one of the radioactive fission materials created within a nuclear reactor during its operation. Its most common radioisotope is stronium-90, which emits beta particles during radioactive decay.

A colorless gas formed when sulfur oxidizes, often as a result of burning trace amounts of sulfur in fossil fuels.

Solid Waste Disposal Act

trillion cubic feet

Total Dissolved Solids

The total amount of resource, discovered and undiscovered, that is thought to be recoverable with available technology, regardless of economics.

radiation that is emitted by naturally occurring radioactive materials, such as uranium, thorium, and radon in the earth. (see also naturally occurring radioactive materials)

Natural gas that is formed by the combined forces of high pressure and temperature (both from deep burial within the earth’s crust), resulting in the natural cracking of the organic matter in the source rock matrix.

a naturally occurring radioactive metal found at very low levels in soil, rocks, water, plants and animals. The most common naturally occurring forms of thorium are thorium-232, thorium-230 or thorium-228.

Plant or animal species that have been designated as being in danger of extinction. See also Endangered Species.

a substance which prevents or reduces the uptake of radioactive iodine by the thyroid. Usually stable potassium iodide (KI) is taken orally for this purpose

Natural gas trapped in a hardrock, sandstone or limestone formation that is relatively impermeable.

The dry weight of dissolved material, organic and inorganic, contained in water and usually expressed in parts per million.

The sum of the deep-dose equivalent (for external exposures) and the committed effective dose equivalent (for internal exposures).

tons per year

elements with atomic numbers higher than uranium (92). For example, plutonium and americium are transuranics.

An artificially made, radioactive element that has an atomic number higher than uranium in the periodic table of elements such as neptunium, plutonium, americium, and others.

Toxics Release Inventory

Tritium (chemical symbol H-3) is a radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen (chemical symbol H)

United States Code

Underground Injection Control

Electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength between the shortest visible violet and low energy x-rays.

A program administered by the Environmental Protection Agency, primacy state, or Indian tribe under the Safe Drinking Water Act to ensure that subsurface emplacement of fluids does not endanger underground drinking water resources.

40 CFR Section 144.3 An aquifer or its portion:
(a)
(1) Which supplies any public water system; or
(2) Which contains a sufficient quantity of ground water to supply a public water system; and
(i) Currently supplies drinking water for human consumption; or
(ii) Contains fewer than 10,000 mg/l total dissolved solids;
and
(b) Which is not an exempted aquifer.

A radioactive isotope

Carbon fuels typically change hands between producers, processors and refiners, distributors and final consumers who burn them. The producer, where fuels first enter the economy, is known as upstream in the fuel chain.

a naturally occurring radioactive element whose principal isotopes are Uranium-238 and Uranium-235. Natural uranium is a hard silvery-white shiny metallic ore that contains a minute amount of Uranium-234.

United States Geological Survey

Volatile Organic Compound

The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water with respect to its suitability for a particular use.

All lands which are enclosed by a continuous hydrologic drainage divide and lay upslope from a specified point on a stream.

Multipliers of the equivalent dose to an organ or tissue used for radiation protection purposes to account for different sensitivities of different organs and tissues to the induction of stochastic effects of radiation (see 10 CFR 20.1003 for complete information).

The activities and methods to prepare a well for production and following drilling. Includes installation of equipment for production from a gas well.

The movement of electricity from one system to another over transmission facilities of intervening systems. Wheeling service contracts can be established between two or more systems.

An exposure of the body to radiation, in which the entire body, rather than an isolated part, is irradiated.

A sample made for the purpose of determining the presence of removable radioactive contamination on a surface. It is done by wiping, with slight pressure, a piece of soft filter paper over a representative type of surface area. It is also known as a "swipe" or "smear" sample.

To perform one or more remedial operations on a producing or injection well to increase production. Deepening, plugging back, pulling, and resetting the liner are examples of workover operations.

Water Quality Act

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range of about 10-9m (1 nm) to 6 x 10-12m (6 pm), or frequencies in the range of 3 x 1017Hz to 5 x 1019Hz and photon energy between 1.2 keV and 240 keV.

metallic element used in coating nuclear fuel rods and in corrosion-resistant alloys. Deposits of zirconium (in the form of zircon or zirconium) frequently include natural radioactive materials.